Investigating Bio-Diesel Production using Potash from Agricultural Wastes

The application of potassium hydroxide (KOH) extracts from four different biomass materials: Water hyacinth, Coconut husk, ripe plantain peels and palm frond  in the trans-esterification of two vegetable oils;  refined rapeseed and crude jatropha oils has been carried out. Potassium hydroxide

obtained from the ash of ripe plantain peels recorded the highest
biodiesel conversion with both vegetable oils. The highest percentage
conversion obtained with  rapeseed oil was 71.01% using 1g of KOH
extract from ripe plantain ash at reaction temperature and time of 75oC
and 4 hours respectively. Under the same reaction conditions, 1g of
commercial caustic potash recorded  70.06% conversion of the rapeseed
oil at the same reaction conditions. From the optimized batch process,
97.15% conversion was achieved  with crude jatropha oil using 1g caustic
potash extract from ripe plantain peels ash; at reaction temperature
and time of 83oC and 4  hours respectively. Under the same condition,
the conversions of the oils to biodiesel using KOH  from coconut husk,
palm fronds and water hyacinth  recorded  low  values of;  53.11%,
46.88% and 33.31% respectively. Generally, the percentage conversion
increased with both time and temperature of trans-esterification of the
vegetable oils using potassium hydroxide extracted from the ash of the
agricultural waste materials. Using KOH from ripe plantain peels, the
conversion increased from 75.20% at 83oC and 1 hour to 97.15% at 83oC
and 4 hours while the conversion increased from 35.18% at 75oC and  1 
hour  to 95.73% at 75oC and  4  hours. The Potash content recorded per g
of the biomass materials  investigated was: palm fronds  (13.9%),
coconut
husk (17.5%) water hyacinth (18.9%), and ripe plantain peels (40.1%).
These respective amounts represent the total recoverable KOH from the
optimized extraction process of the ashes of the four biomass materials,
at well defined  extraction temperatures of 30  - 50oC and  varied
times of 1-6 hours as against  100oC
(boiling water)  and 24  hours  employed  in the traditional
extraction  method.  The cumulative weights of KOH obtained per  g of
ash at the  different temperatures and times, increased progressively
with water volume for the 1st and 2nd stages of extraction (100ml/200ml,
150ml/300ml and 200ml/400ml). The effectiveness in using 400ml water in
two equal portions in the two stages of KOH extraction was about 9.3%
better on the average than using the least volume of 200ml under the
same conditions. To attain optimized extraction; 5-10 times the weight
of ash is required in water for a given biomass ash extraction on a two-
stage basis. 

TABLE OF CONTENTS                         Page
DECLARATION - - - - -      ii
CERTIFICATION - - - - -     iii
DEDICATION - - - - -    iv
ACKOWLEDGEMENT - - - - -   v
ABSTRACT - - - - -     viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS - - - - -   x
LIST OF TABLES - - - - -     xx    
LIST OF FIGURES - - - - - xxiii
LIST OF PLATES - - -           xxxvi
LIST OF ACRONYMS - - - - -      xxxvii

CHAPTER ONE    INTRODUCTION - - - - -      1
1.1    Research background - - - - -   1
1.2    Statement of the Problem - - - - - 9
1.3    Aims/Objectives of Research - - -          10
1.4    The Specific Objectives - - -           10
1.5    Justification for the Research - - -          11
1.6    Scope of the Study - - - - - 11

CHAPTER TWO  LITERATURE REVIEW - - -         12
2.1    Biodiesel - - - - -   12
2.2    Advantages of Bio-Diesel over Petro Diesel - - -       17
2.3    Disadvantages of Biodiesel - - -           19
2.4    Cold Flow Properties of Biodiesel - - -         21
2.5    Test Parameters for Biodiesel - - -          22
2.5.1    Free & Total Glycerine - - -           22
2.5.2    Cetane Number - - - - - 23
2.5.3    Flash Point - - - - -    23
2.5.4    Total Acid Number - - - - - . 23
2.5.5    Cloud and Pour Point - - - - - 23
2.5.6    Water and Sediment - - - - - 24
2.5.7    Visual Inspection - - - - -     24
2.5.8    Total Sulphur - - - - -   24
2.5.9    Kinematic Viscosity - - - - - 24
2.5.10    Sulphated Ash - - - - - 25
2.5.11    Copper Strip Corrosion - - -            25
2.5.12    Distillation Temperature - - -            25
2.6    Raw Materials - - - - - 26
2.6.1     Jatropha Oil - - - - -    27
2.6.2    Water Hyacinth - - - - - 31
2.6.3    Water Transportation Challenges: - - -          32
(i)    Irrigation, Hydropower and Water Supply Systems Challenges - - - 32
(ii)     Flooding Problems - - - - - 32
(iii)     Evapo-Transpiration Challenges - - -          32
(iv)     Fishing Related Challenges - - -            33
(v)     Extinction of biodiversity - - - - -          33
(vi)     Water Quality Challenges - - -            33
2.6.4     Solutions and Control of Water Hyacinth - - -        33
(i)    Biological Control - - - - - 34
(ii)     Chemical Control - - - - - 34
(iii)     Physical Control - - - - -   34
2.6.5     Possible Practical Applications of Water Hyacinth - - -      35
(i)    Paper - - - - -     35
 (ii)    Fibre Board - - - - -    35
(iii)    Yarn and Rope - - - - - 35
(iv)    Basket Work - - - - -    36
(v)    Charcoal Briquetting - - - - - 36
(vi)    Biogas Production - - - - - 36
(vii)    Water Purification - - - - - 36
(viii)    Animal Fodder - - - - - 37
(ix)    Fish Feed - - - - -    37
(x)    Application of Water Hyacinth in Biodiesel Production - - -    37
2.7    Coconut Husk - - - - - 38
2.7.1    The Many Uses of the Coconut - - -          40
(i)    Building Materials - - - - - 41
(ii)     Chemicals - - - - -    41
(iii)    Agricultural Value - - - - - 41         
(iv)     Novelties and Others - - - - - 41
(v)    Application of Coconut Husk in Biodiesel Production - - -    41
2.8    Palm Fronds - - - - -    44
2.9    Ripe Plantain Peels - - - - -    46
2.9.1    Application of Palm Fronds in Biodiesel Production - - -     47
2.10    Recovery of Ethanol from Ogogoro - - -      49
2.11    Extraction of Potassium Hydroxide from Biomass Sources - - - .   52
2.12    Catalyst - - - - -    54 

CHAPTER THREE    METHODOLOGY OF RESEARCH      56
3.1    Apparatuses, Materials Sourcing and Handling - - -      56
3.1.1    Materials Sourcing - - - - - 56
3.1.2    Apparatuses - - - - -    56
3.2    Extraction of KOH - - - - -   56
3.2.1     Raw Materials Preparation - - -            57
(1)    Preparation of Water Hyacinth - - -          57
(2)    Preparation of Coconut Husks and Plantain peels - - -     57
(3)    Palm Frond Leaves - - - - -   57
3.2.2      Extraction of Procedures - - -            57
3.3    Obtaining Ethanol from Ogogoro - - -          62
3.4    Catalyst/Ethanol Mixture - - - - - - - -    62
3.5    Jatropha Oil - - - - -   62
3.5.1    Physical Properties of Jatropha Oil - - -          63
(a)    Density/Specific Gravity - - -            63
bi)    Saponification Value of Oil - - -           63
(i)     Reagents/materials - - - - - 63   
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -   63
(iii)     Procedure: - - - - -   63
(iv)     Calculations - - - - -   64
(c)     Iodine Value of Oil - - - - - .64
(i)    Reagents/materials - - - - - 64
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -    64
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -    64
(iv)     Calculations - - - - -    65
(d)     Acid Value of Oil - - - - - 65
(i)     Reagents - - - - -   65
(ii)     Apparatus - - - - -    65
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -   65
(iv)    Calculations - - - - -    66
(e)    Water Content - - - - -   66
(i).     Reagents - - - - -   66
(ii)  .   Apparatus - - - - -   66
(iii)     Procedures - - - - -   66
3.6.1    Calculating the Molecular Weight of Jatropha Oil - - -      67  
3.6.2    Calculating the Molecular Weight of Rapeseed Oil - - -          68   
3.7    Experimental Designs - - - - - 69
3.8    Instrumentation - - - - - 73  
3.8.1    Experimental Set-Up - - - - - 73
3.8.2    Flow Diagrams - - - - - 76
3.8.3    Major Processes at Each Stage of Bio-Diesel Production - - -    77  
(i)    Stage 1  Catalyst Preparation - - -            77
(ii)    Stage 2 Feedstock Preparation - - -         77
(iii)    Stage 3  Trans-esterification - - -            77
(iv)     Stage 4   Separation Process - - -           77
(v)     Stage 5   Product Purification - - -            77
(vi)    Stage 6   Drying - - - - - 77
3.9         Biodiesel Analysis - - - - - 78  
3.9.1     Characterization - - - - - 78

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS AND DISCUSSION OF RESULTS  79
4.1    Biomass and Agricultural wastes Sources - - -        79
4.2     Effect of Temperature and Volume of Water used - - -     88
4.2.1    Potash from Coconut Husks - - -           91
4.2.2    Potash from Water Hyacinth (shoot) - - -         93
4.2.3    Potash from Palm Fronds  ` - - -        97
4.3     The Effect of Time on Potash Extract - - -     100
4.4     Effect of ash density and Temperature - - -     104
4.